Criminology Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Criminology - Case Study Example The availability and computing of crime statistics is a vital component of law enforcement. Crime statistics provide us with important facts that theories must then explain. During the increased crime rate of USA during 1980s, the criminologist's strugged to justify the unexplained increase in crime rate throughout the nation. However, during 1990s the same country experienced a reduction in the crime rate and thus it is now essential for criminologists to discover the root causes of crime in order to understand this trend. The who, when, where, how of crimes is addressed by the quantitative techniques of measuring crime and which are vital in answering the why of crimes. Measuring criminal behavior is not just an academic exercise in futility, for it can fruitfully be used in evaluating criminal justice policy initiatives, policing, judicial and correctional administration amongst various other uses. Siegel, (183-227) believed that criminal behavior was a function of the human ability to choose an individual course of action. Psychological theories of crime which justify the reduction in crime rate during 1990s began with the view that individual differences in behavior may make some people more predisposed to committing criminal acts. These differences may arise from personality characteristics, biological factors, or social interactions. There are many other theories that attempt to explain criminal behavior, but that is beyond the scope of this essay. Now, having learnt about crime and criminology, it is now necessary to throw some light on the root causes of crime. Discussion Although there were several specific crimes which were on the rise during the increased crime rate of 1980s, those crimes experienced a reduction during 1990s. However, while interest in crime has always been high, understanding of why it occurs and what to do about it has always been a problem. Public officials, politicians and 'experts' offer simple and incomplete solutions for obliterating crime, whereas academe invariably offers abstract interpretations and suggestions that often have little practical value. As in most areas of human behavior, there is no shortage of experts but there are very few effective solutions (American Journal of Sociology, 3920-4259) According to Siegel (183-227) criminologists studying the trend of crime rate in USA during 1980s and 1990s have rarely shown interest in the aspect of situational crime prevention. Criminologists develop theories and conduct research to understand and explain criminal behavior. A theory attempts to make sense out of many disparate observations (or facts) by stating a general principal that connects, integrates and explains them. A good theory is extremely valuable in that it extends our knowledge beyond the facts in front of us (the raw data), enabling us to predict how others might behave at another time and in another place (Ojp.usdoj.gov, 2007). Criminological theories based on biology, psychology were both, at one stage dominant in the field; however the vast majority of current criminological text employs sociological theory and research. Biological and psychological explanations will be examined in the following essay; however there will be a focus on sociological theory. It has been said that a theory of criminal conduct is weak indeed if it is uninformed by a general psychology of human

Misery made me a friend Essay Example for Free

Misery made me a friend Essay It takes an evil person to kill an inocent small boy barely old enough to fend for himself. He was only a young child, he didnt have a chance against a Monster with the strength of twenty grown men. What the Monster did was out of revenge. Revenge is a human nature but is not a good thing. To seek revenge on somebody is a very unrational way of thinking. Two wrongs do not make a right. The Bible even says, if your neighbour hits you in your cheek, turn your face for them to hit you in the other. You should not retaliate. He had watched and learned from the Laceys and knew right from wrong by the time he had first killed. He was an inteligent being, he had the brain of a very knowledgeable proffesor. This was shown in the way he did things. He knew to set up Justine for Willies murder, this would take quick thinking and someone who is on the ball. He knew that the people would look for someone to blame and punish. He did not want them coming in search for him, so when he saw Justine asleep he took his oppertunity. This lets us know he knew how mans laws worked and knew he was doing evil. He also would of known that killing Willie, Elizabeth and setting up Justine, to get her hung, would not correct what Victor did. Another reason which makes the monster unjustified is; he never approached Frankenstien before commiting the murders to try and work out an alternative solution. You could argue that Frankenstien never abandonned the Monster. The Monster ran away. Victor claimed he thought that the monster had died. A more sensible and logical thing to do would of been to talk to Frankenstien first. He could of discussed the issues he had and found out more information. In commiting the murders, he showed a weakness of will. He had choices and elected to kill, this only turned Victor and the rest of mankind against him more. Victor grudgingly put together a female companion for the Monster and backed out before the end. If he approached Victor before killing his younger brother, Victor may of been happy to do it. He may of even been able to make the Monster more attractive or helped him fit in more socially. As he was a very respected man. I feel that the Monster was not justified in his murderous behaviour. I think that he had a lot of difficult situations to get through but things could of been resolved differently. An equimilation of all the things caused the monster to snap and do what he did in my opinion. The reason which makes up my mind is that he didnt try to approach Frankenstein before he lashed out. A lot of a pain could of been avoided that way and in the end, the Monster still didnt get what he wanted. Victor was a very respeced man and came from a respected familly, withhis help i feel the Monster could of eventually been accepted by people: Take The Elephant Man, his story is very similar to the Monsters. He was a man who had a disease causing his ead to be very large and have large tumors all over his body. He was very diformed and ugly. He was always looked at as a freak. He was abused by other humans around him but never had the strength to seek revenge. He was found by a doctor who looked after him and helped him. After a lot of education and confidence building he was eventually accepted into the community. The help of the doctor made The Elephant Man feel wanted and gave him a meaning to his life. He died a happy man. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

Tax on Negative Externality

Tax on Negative Externality In the free market nowadays, allocating the scarce of resource and allow the market to forces supply and demand to set prices is the very view of the government. Therefore, protect property right, maintain the value of the currency had become the role of the government. Improvements in allocative, dynamic efficiency and productive are often deliver by the competitive markets. The erosions for policy intervention are mainly to correct for market failure, attain a more equitable distribution of income and wealth to enhance the achievement of the economy. There are many methods the intervention can take place. For example are the laws on minimum age for buying cigarettes and alcohol. The government appointed utility regulators who may levied taxation on certain goods. Per-unit tax can be defined as a fixed amount for each unit of good and service sold. Per-unit taxes are often imposed on specific goods, services or markets such as non-alcoholic beverages, gasoline, alcohol and cigarettes for particular reasons. An ordinary reason is to advocate the allocation effect. This means that the government discourage the production, consumption or exchange of the specific merchandise. Non-alcoholic beverages, gasoline, alcohol and cigarettes are also known as excise tax. Excise tax can be deliberate as an indirect form of taxation. This is because the government indirectly apply the tax to the consumer. This tax is normally passed on the consumer as the normal cost of doing business. For example, if a bottle of wine costs $10. It may have a specific excise tax imposed onto it which is $2. This additional cost of the wine would be levied onto the consumer, making the market price to be at $12 for per bottle of wine. Government imposed a tax onto it is because alcohol is bad for our health. Therefore, a tax levied onto it may reduce the consumption of some consumer. Taxes are kind of a significant sources of revenue for government. On the other hand, taxes would decrease the supply curve and demand curve in the market because sellers obtain less revenue for their product and buyers would need to pay a higher price for the goods they want. Occasionally, government will try to reduce the burden of the tax for sellers and buyers due to a high exes for sellers or buyers if the government set the tax for only one of them. For example, the federal government does with the payroll tax. The government require both of the labors and firms to pay half of the taxes. The rationale behind why governments would want to impose a per-unit tax on buyer or seller of certain goods. Firstly, let’s say about excise taxation. Excise is a taxation which is enforced to a narrow base of goods and services which are seen to have harm associated with their expenditure, such as tobacco, alcohol, fuel, motor vehicles, and in some other countries to wider the range of products. For example soft drinks, coffee and tea. Government use such goods taxes to achieve multiple objectives. And also excise tax are used by government to generate revenues. For the most common example, tobacco, government impose three types of tax on tobacco. One of the types is excise tax. While government enforce a wide diversity of taxes on tobacco products, it is the unique taxes to tobacco products called tobacco excise taxes that straight away effects the comparative prices of tobacco products. Therefore, it has an extreme control on tobacco use. As evidence, governments using a higher tobacco taxes as a means to discourage its use after it has assembled about the health and economic consequences. Historically the elementary objective of tobacco taxes has been revenue generation. Furthermore, non-alcoholic beverage is also one of the common example for governments would want to impose taxes on this goods such as sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB). The rate of the sugar-sweetened beverage among adults and children are constantly increasing in United States. Take more sugar-sweetened beverage could cause heart disease, diabetes, obesity and also dental decay. To raise the obesity prevention and to reduce the ingestion of sugar-sweetened beverage in United States, the American Public Health Association should have to support the government and federal in impose an excise tax on sugar-sweetened beverage and it would raise the price of all the sugar-sweetened beverage in the States. After a research, it shown that sugar-sweetened beverage are price elastic. It is probable that if government raise the beverage price by 10% would decrease the intake of sugar-sweetened beverage by 10% as well. However, reduce in intaking of sugar-sweetened beverage, tobacco, alcohol and others unhealthy products is likely only if the consumer aware of the prices increases before they pay. So government are preferred able to impose excise tax than a sales tax. An excise tax are impose on the beverage manufacturing which will straight away pass the cost to customers so that they would aware of the price increases. Excise taxes is a kind of taxes on particular products only. This elastic demand pushed the tax burden on the sellers instead of buyers. Nevertheless, there are some goods which demand is inelastic because there are no good that is close substitutes, such as alcohol and tobacco. In conclusion of excise tax, the tax burden for his few goods falls more on the buyers than the sellers. Elasticity is a measure of responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to a change in one of its determinants. Price elasticity of Demand is a measure of responsiveness of quantity demanded towards changes in price. Many products are subject to taxes. For example, goods such as tobacco, alcohol, and fuel. Here we see the consequences of indirect taxes on costs and the significant of price elasticity of demand in that determines the effects of a tax on price and quantity. Tax increases the costs of a business causing the supply curve to shift left or decreases. The distance between the original supply curve and the after tax supply curve shows the per unit tax. With an indirect tax, the supplier can pass on some or all of the tax to the consumer by increasing the price of the good. This depends on the elasticity of demand and supply and it is known as shifting the burden of the tax and In the diagram on the left, the demand curve shows that the price is elastic. This makes the producer bear more of the tax burden. When the demand is elastic, the effect of tax is to raise the price however there will be a big reduction in equilibrium quantity. The quantity decreases from Q1 to Q2 as shown in the diagram in the left. In the diagram on the right, the demand curve shows that the price is inelastic. Price elastic demand is more than one in most parts of the demand curve. The producer is then able to pass on most of the tax to the consumer by increasing the price without losing too much sales because when a good is inelastic, the consumer still has to buy although the price increases. This is shown in the diagram on the right when price increases by a lot, the quantity demanded only decreases by a little. Price elasticity of Demand, in combination with Price elasticity of Supply, can be used to find the incidence or burden of a per-unit tax is falling or to foresee where it will fall if the tax is levied. For example, when demand is perfectly inelastic, that means that consumers need the good and that the good is a necessity, so the quantity demanded remains consistent. Suppliers usually will increase the price by the full amount of the tax, and then the consumer will bare the full amount of tax. But when demand is perfectly elastic, that means there are other substitutes for the consumer or they can buy it cheaper somewhere else, this causes consumers to stop buying the good or service in question completely. Therefore, firms cannot pass the tax at all by raising prices, so they will have to pay for the tax themselves. In conclusion, many products are subject to taxes. With an indirect tax, the supplier can shift the burden of the tax to the consumer by increasing the price of the good. When the price is elastic the producer will bear more of the tax burden. When the price is inelastic. Price elastic demand is more than one in most parts of the demand curve. The producer can pass on most of the tax to the consumer by increasing the price without losing too much sales because when a good is inelastic, the consumer still has to buy although the price increases. We now know that price elasticity of demand can be used to find the incidence or burden of a per-unit tax is falling or to predict where it will fall if there is tax. There are different kind of tax charge is different country but there do have some similar benefit. As we should know, no one lives in isolation, tax benefit to everyone do not matter to the size of income. In Malaysia, more than 20 million car and citizen and benefit the travel on a public highway as some of the tax collected was use for road built, local road fund, maintained and more. Beside public used by citizen, New Mexico government provide education by using tax collected. Children in New Mexico benefit more than 47% which attend public school. The cause of government in New Mexico by giving such amount of tax on education is because it benefit the country in the future with more educated person. Besides that, student which attend college and university in New Mexico benefit 17% of the tax collected to help decreasing unemployment in the future by providing college graduates qualify for a job or even a better job. Children in Malaysia do have the same benefit on attend public school with free charge of education. Besides that, many people pay insurance or security for safety on their own as safety is very important to everyone. Therefore, citizen in New Mexico had an advantage by benefit another 7% of the tax collected provided fund police and other law-enforcement units. Some health support come from the text collected as the government in New Mexico gave 20% of the tax collected to help families through work of the Department of Health and human Service. Therefore, citizen have more than the benefit to build up a better future for the country as finally, 40% share of the gross receipts taxes collected by the state and distributed to local and country governments. Tax increase reduces the quantity trade and some of the gains from trade. While taxes increasing, price of buyer increase and the price to the seller falls cause the consumer surplus and producer surplus (profit) falls. Besides that, in the supply and demand theory, per unit tax does not matter much because buyer cares only the total price paid which is the amounts of supplier gets plus tax and the sellers cares more of the net to supplier which is price of buyer paid minus tax. Furthermore, tax reduce the quantity traded and some of the gains from trade. While the price of buyer rises causes the consumer surplus falls and the price of the seller falls causes the producer surplus (profit) falls. But then the losses captured in the form of the tax can be exchange were there no tax while the unit of those units is given by demand, and the marginal cost of the units is given by the supple. These lost gains from trade are known as a deadweight loss. Because of the tax interference in the market is the buyers values minus the sellers costs of units that cannot be trade in economic. Loss to society were represents to show the important of deadweight loss. In the sense can be view as an opportunity cost of taxation, money collect from people to obtain a dollar tax revenue actually costs society more than a dollar. The costs of the raising tax revenues include the money raise, tax collectors and government agencies to administer tax collection and deadweight loss are the example of direct cost of collection which create the incentive effect of taxes and decrease the gain of trade. The concept of effective need to be discussed in the situation of what the tax is trying to accomplish in terms of government policy. For example, in the situation of non-alcoholic beverages, it can be expected that objectives of a discriminatory tax on this products would be to raise revenue or externalize perceived harm from consumption, or both. The term of discriminatory taxation, such as excise on non-alcoholic beverages, most of it in sweetened drinks has been subject of much debate in recent years. Taxes on such products have been imposed or expel, and in certain countries are being considered. As discriminatory taxation, an excise impose on sweetened soft drinks may raise tax revenues from this single category of products. It may also operate to change the consumptions of the product through the consequential growth in its price. Secondly, government impose three types of tax on tobacco. One of the types is excise tax. It is a good source of revenue and the dominant opinion is that people who smoke should be responsible for paying the costs that their use imposes on society. Human being need not tobacco for survival. The reason government levied excise tax on tobacco because it can raise the revenue for government and control smoker from buying cigarettes. Higher taxes are useful in reducing the use in tobacco among the youth and lower’s income groups. However, it has an extreme control on tobacco use. As evidence, governments have increasingly using a higher tobacco taxes as a means to discourage its use. A per unit tax often imposed taxes on a specific markets or goods. There are few types of taxes in economies. The most common per unit tax is excise tax which are usually imposed on those goods and services that seen to be have harmful associate. As the example above, tobacco and sugar-sweetened beverage are encourage to levy excise taxation. Furthermore, the price elasticity of demand measure a responsiveness of quantity demanded to change in price of the good. That means, when the prices are elastic, the more burden would goes to producer and also when the prices are inelastic, consumer will bear more of the burden. Moreover, there are few benefits such as citizen can enjoy education by using tax collected in Mexico. New Mexico government provide some collected tax to help families. Other than benefits there is also some drawbacks of per unit tax which are tax could reduce the quantity traded and there will be a deadweight loss occur. Lastly, the theory signified that the excise ta xation structure will have an important consequences on government to accomplish multiple objectives.

The Probability of Landing on Different Properties in Monopoly :: Applied Statistics Essays

One of my favorite board games is Monopoly. I have noticed when I’ve played Monopoly that it seems like you always land on certain squares more than others. For instance, it seems like no one ever lands on Boardwalk, and players land on the pink and orange properties more often than they land on the others. The aim of this exploration is to find out if, over the course of a Monopoly game, a player will land on some squares more often than others and to use this information to figure out which properties are most profitable. This knowledge could help a player decide which properties to buy. The rules of Monopoly are fairly simple. In each turn, the player rolls two dice and moves the number of squares that is the total dice roll. The player then may buy the property he or she lands on if it is available, or if another player already owns it, the first player pays rent according to the instructions on the card associated with the property. If a player owns all the properties in a color group, he or she can increase the rent that other players pay when they land on a square by buying houses or hotels. There are some more complications in the game, but they are not important to this exploration. I decided that the most practical way to find out if a player will land on some squares more than others was to run a simulation. In order to do so, I needed to figure out how many times a player would roll the dice in a game of Monopoly, as that was the number of repetitions I would need to have in my simulation. To find that number, I played a game of Monopoly which I timed and counted the number of rolls in. It was 93 minutes long and the dice were rolled 201 times. I divided the time by the rolls to find the time per roll . The average game of Monopoly is 60 to 240 minutes long (Wikipedia) so I decided to use the middle value, 150. I divided the average length of a Monopoly game by the average time per roll to find the number of rolls in an average length Monopoly game . I decided to assume a four person game, so I divided 324 by 4 and got 81 rolls per person.

Pyramids and Ziggurats

Pyramids and ziggurats both provide archeologists with a great deal of information about the ancient cultures that constructed them. When comparing The Great Pyramids of Egypt with The Ziggurats of Mesopotamia and the Mesoamerican Pyramids, the differences between them are more apparent than the similarities that they share. The structures only appear to be similar. Both have the general form of a pyramid. Some other similarities shared by these structures can be interpreted from a religious context of those who had them erected and what role they served for the society.Among the differences are their usage, how they were decorated, their designs, and the materials used in their construction. The Egyptian pyramids were built as the final resting place for the pharaoh. It was also where the Pharaohs possessions were kept for him to enjoy in the afterlife. What has been found inside of these tremendous pyramids are precise layouts. For example, page 51 in our first book shows a diagram of the pyramid and inside each of them is a narrow shaft that extends from the deepest chamber to the outside. Coincidentally it is aligned with the North Star.The Great Pyramids are quite interesting. The stones are so tight that you cannot even put a knife in between the stones. It makes you think how could this be possible? It makes you think how did these pyramids get built? Some might say that they were moved on wooden sleds, but it is quite hard to imagine how they constructed something on this scale. While it is true that the forced labor of war prisoners was a common practice at the time, most people agree that the humongous labor force used in building the pyramids consisted of workers from throughout Egypt as it states in our book.Another interesting fact is that they are also perfectly square and they are aligned almost precisely with a compass. So really the main purposes of these pyramids were to have a resting place for their Pharaohs as they entered the afterlife. Th e pyramids of Mesoamerica also had their dead buried inside just as the Maya had done as mentioned in Book III on page 105. Unlike the Ancient Egyptian pyramids, these pyramids are better known for serving as altars or bearers of sacrificial offerings. Like the ancientEgyptians, the early civilizations of Mesoamerica were involved in agriculture and their lives depended on how successful the harvest is. Because of this, both the Mayans and the Aztecs preformed human sacrifice as part of agricultural renewal. The temples had a long stair-stepped design that shows their purpose. The stepped design isn’t the only difference from the pyramids of ancient Egypt, but it was also the function they served in the society. These were temples to gods, and each one had a staircase topped with a temple.The Mesoamerican pyramids were the heart and center of the city and community. Its main focus was to serve as religious ceremonies and civic ceremonies unlike the Egyptians which had their p yramids away from the villages. The Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan was designed to represent certain astronomical events providing a link between the culture and the universe. If you look at the Pyramid of the Sun compared to the pyramids in Egypt, it is exactly the same size in terms of base as the great pyramid, but its height is roughly half the size of the great pyramids.It is actually more similar to the Mesopotamian Ziggurats than the Ancient Egyptians Pyramids. Ziggurats are a lot like the Mesoamerican pyramids, with their stair-stepped shape and temple tops. But ziggurats were not places of worship to the Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians that built them, they were the gods’ actual homes. In fact, only the priests could enter. And while South American pyramids have long staircases, ziggurats have ramps and steps. Many ziggurats also had seven tiers, representing the seven known planets or the seven heavens.For the most part, the ziggurats that still exist can b e found mainly in Iran and Iraq. Ziggurats and pyramids do greatly differ with function and purpose. As I had stated, Pyramids were thought to be the final resting places of the pharaohs. Ziggurats, however, were built to house the gods. Because of this, only special priests were allowed to go inside the ziggurats. Ziggurats also function as a retreat spot for the priest in case of a flood at the ground level. It also is a complete temple with dwelling places, storages, and courtyards.Zigguratss have steps and ramps with its sides receding. They pyramids have a long stretch of staircases as the Mesoamerican pyramids demonstrated and smoother sides, as the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids showed. The Ziggurats do lack internal chambers unlike the Egyptian Pyramids. The Ziggurats have seven layers that represent the seven planets of heaven. Studying these ancient structures gives us a chance to take a look at the past. It is amazing how these feats of engineering survived this long.Because o f this, we are able to look at the civilizations that built them and how they incorporated these structures into their society. For Ancient Egyptians, it was for the deceased pharaohs as they made their journey to the afterlife. For the Mesoamericans, it was for religious purposes and agricultural renewal. And last for the Mesopotamians, it served as a house where the gods lived. These structures were a representation of the whole universe to these people. It is hard to compare with anything that we have now.

Learning Language Through Structured Rules

Learning Language Through Structured Rules Free Online Research Papers In the language study, language is based on a set of structures or rules. These rules refer to the patterns of the language variety the child is learning. All language varieties rely on rules. Using the term â€Å"actively working out† we mean the structure or rules based in language, cannot be worked out simply by imitating individual utterances. An example of this is how a child who says â€Å"drinked† instead of â€Å"drank† is over applying the rule. These mistakes are normally known as virtuous errors. Noem Chomsky is a well known theorist. He focuses on the impoverished language input children receive. His theory is Innateness, meaning he believes a child’s brain contains special language learning mechanisms at birth. This means we have evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic information. Easily put, when a child hears speech the brain is able to interpret what she/he hears according to the structures it already knows. This is known as the language acquisition device (LAD). To back Chomsky’s theory up we can look into the evidence of the human anatomy. Our bodies have adapted, for our bodies to introduce speech we have evolved a vocal tract to produce a wide range of vocal sounds. There is also relevant evidence into the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas of the brain. This relates to stroke victims as proof, where thy may suffer finding words an inerrability to use syntax depending on the location of the brain damage. However Skinner who is a theorist supporting the behaviourism theory believes children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are reinforced when they get what they want or are praised, while unsuccessful utterances are then forgotten. However there seem to be many objections to the behaviourism theory. There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition relating back to Chomsky. The famous example is of a girl called genie discovered at the age of 13 years old that had been isolated and neglected from the outside world. Genie was very deprived and had no use of language. Her carers tried to teach her to speak. However she never became a fluent speaker. Another criticism of skinners approach was Chomsky argued that children have an innate ability to extract the rule underlying language from the words they hear, spoken around them. My final theorist I will refer to is Piaget, he believed in the cognitive theory where language is just one aspect of a child’s overall intellectual development. He argued that a child has to understand a concept before s/he can acquire the particular language from which expresses that concept. An example is seriation. There is a point where a child can compare objects due to size e.g. if you gave a child a number of sticks the child could arrange them in order of size. He suggested if a child had not passed this stage they could not learn comparative adjective such as â€Å"smaller† and â€Å"bigger†. Again Chomsky argues against this as Chomsky believes a child exposed to language acquisition will happen happen automatically. Research Papers on Learning Language Through Structured RulesComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAnalysis Of A Cosmetics Advertisement19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyQuebec and CanadaHip-Hop is ArtMind Travel